The first leg of Dix’s career as a public servant began when she started teaching in 1821. She originally began with teaching wealthy girls from her grandmother's house and then began to teach poor children for free. A chronic lung condition however, forced her to stop teaching for a few years. When she returned to teaching in Cambridge, Massachusetts, she discovered a new passion for mental health reform. In Cambridge, she was teaching Sunday school to young women. Here, she discovered that the women who were considered “insane” did not have access to heat at any point during the year, including during the harsh winters. This is when she knew she needed to begin advocating for people suffering with mental illnesses.
Dix’s career as an advocate for people with mental illness began in 1841, following her discoveries in Cambridge. Her goal was to document the horrid conditions that patients with mental illnesses were relegated to, writing to state legislatures in hopes of helping to improve these living conditions. Dix was not allowed to speak in front of the legislature because she was a woman. Instead, she was forced to write to the state legislature and then wait outside of the building while the legislature reviewed her documents (Smark 2005).
After writing a memorandum to the Massachusetts’ state legislature she successfully drafted a plan for mental health reform in the state. After studying various prisons and boarding houses, she documented their conditions, adding her recommendations for reform. In “I tell What I have Seen,” Dix shares some of her various findings, which included: women being held in cages, people being chained by hand and foot, an individual being housed “in a closed stall for 17 years”, and people being confined to such small spaces that they were losing the use of their limbs. At the time there was immense stigma around people with mental illness, and some even believed that those suffering lacked basic human qualities, such as the ability to feel cold. Her recommendations around reform were based around the concept of moral therapy. This included things such as getting rid of restraints used on patients, and allowing them to read books and listen to music (Smark 2005). In Massachusetts, her reform led to the expansion and reformation of the Worcester State Mental Hospital.
Her success in Massachusetts led to the implementation of the plan in other states, including Illinois. One of the most impressive achievements of Dix’s career was founding the first mental hospital in the state. Much like she did in Massachusetts, Dix traveled through the central and northern parts of Illinois, documenting her findings, and going on to write a memorandum to be presented to the state legislature. After Dix made her suggestions, a long political battle ensued in the state. Finally however, a hospital was established, and a superintendent was chosen to run the hospital. When the administration of the hospital began to revert to earlier abusive practices, Dix stepped in once again, writing to the Illinois legislature asking for assistance for the institution in 1861 (Norbury 1999).
After she spent time writing to legislatures and helping to found and reform mental hospitals in the United States, she went straight to the federal government, requesting that five million acres of land be cordoned off to be used for the care of those Americans suffering with various forms of mental illness. In 1854, the bill passed through both houses of Congress, but was then vetoed by President Franklin Pierce. Following this, she traveled to Europe for what she intended to be a period of rest. Ultimately though, she involved herself in advocating for the mentall ill population there as well. Similarly to what she had done in the United States, she began to travel around, visiting various hospitals and prisons in England, Scotland, France, Austria, Italy, Greece, Turkey, Sweden, Denmark, Holland, Belgium, and Germany, and speaking with their respective authorities with the goal of enacting change (Viney & Zorich 1982).
Arriving back in the United States in 1856, the course of Dix’s life was changed by the events of the Civil War. Dix went on to spend the final years of her public service as the Superintendent of Union Army Nurses during the war. This position was the highest military position held by any woman during this era. Dix was a very strict administrator and had rigid guidelines when it came to hiring nurses, which many individuals disapproved of. For example, she only hired nurses between the ages of thirty five and fifty because she believed that anyone younger would be distracting to the male soldiers. Her rules faced much criticism, and this would be the beginning of the end of her career. Dix herself even went so far as to say that her time as the Superintendent of nurses during the war was a failure, and that she did not want her life to be judged on that work alone (Galik 2017).
Dix’s life came full circle when she passed away in 1887, after a six year stay in the state hospital in Trenton, New Jersey. This facility happened to be the first hospital that was founded entirely as a result of her own efforts.
Sources:
"Dorothea Lynde Dix." In Encyclopedia of World Biography Online. Detroit, MI: Gale, 1998. Gale In Context: Biography (accessed June 15, 2021).
https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/K1631001831/BIC?u=mlin_b_suffuniv&sid=bookmark-BIC&xid=4 291e8d7.
Galik, Emily. “Dorothea Dix, Superintendent of Nurses: When an Activist Becomes an Administrator” Women Leading Change: Case Studies on Women, Gender, and Feminism 2, no. 1 (December 2017) 31-44.
Norbury, Frank B. “Dorothea Dix and the Founding of Illinois’ First Mental Hospital” Journal of the Illinois State Historical Society (1998-) 92, no. 1 (Spring 1999) 13-29.
Smark, Ciorstan J. “Dorothea Dix: A Social Researcher and Reformer” University of Wollongong (January 2005) 1-10.
Viney, Wayne and Zorich, Steven. “Contributions to the History of Psychology: XXIX Dorothea Dix and the History of Psychology” Psychological Reports 50 (1982) 211-218.
]]>Dorothea Lynde Dix (April 4, 1802- July 17. 1887) was born to Joseph and Mary Dix in Hampden, Maine at the beginning of the 19th century. Later in life, she described her childhood as being filled with poverty and loneliness. At a young age she left home, moving to Boston, Massachusetts to live with her grandmother.
The first leg of Dix’s career as a public servant began when she started teaching in 1821. She originally began with teaching wealthy girls from her grandmother's house and then began to teach poor children for free. A chronic lung condition however, forced her to stop teaching for a few years. When she returned to teaching in Cambridge, Massachusetts, she discovered a new passion for mental health reform. In Cambridge, she was teaching Sunday school to young women. Here, she discovered that the women who were considered “insane” did not have access to heat at any point during the year, including during the harsh winters. This is when she knew she needed to begin advocating for people suffering with mental illnesses.
Dix’s career as an advocate for people with mental illness began in 1841, following her discoveries in Cambridge. Her goal was to document the horrid conditions that patients with mental illnesses were relegated to, writing to state legislatures in hopes of helping to improve these living conditions. Dix was not allowed to speak in front of the legislature because she was a woman. Instead, she was forced to write to the state legislature and then wait outside of the building while the legislature reviewed her documents (Smark 2005).
After writing a memorandum to the Massachusetts’ state legislature she successfully drafted a plan for mental health reform in the state. After studying various prisons and boarding houses, she documented their conditions, adding her recommendations for reform. In “I tell What I have Seen,” Dix shares some of her various findings, which included: women being held in cages, people being chained by hand and foot, an individual being housed “in a closed stall for 17 years”, and people being confined to such small spaces that they were losing the use of their limbs. At the time there was immense stigma around people with mental illness, and some even believed that those suffering lacked basic human qualities, such as the ability to feel cold. Her recommendations around reform were based around the concept of moral therapy. This included things such as getting rid of restraints used on patients, and allowing them to read books and listen to music (Smark 2005). In Massachusetts, her reform led to the expansion and reformation of the Worcester State Mental Hospital.
Her success in Massachusetts led to the implementation of the plan in other states, including Illinois. One of the most impressive achievements of Dix’s career was founding the first mental hospital in the state. Much like she did in Massachusetts, Dix traveled through the central and northern parts of Illinois, documenting her findings, and going on to write a memorandum to be presented to the state legislature. After Dix made her suggestions, a long political battle ensued in the state. Finally however, a hospital was established, and a superintendent was chosen to run the hospital. When the administration of the hospital began to revert to earlier abusive practices, Dix stepped in once again, writing to the Illinois legislature asking for assistance for the institution in 1861 (Norbury 1999).
After she spent time writing to legislatures and helping to found and reform mental hospitals in the United States, she went straight to the federal government, requesting that five million acres of land be cordoned off to be used for the care of those Americans suffering with various forms of mental illness. In 1854, the bill passed through both houses of Congress, but was then vetoed by President Franklin Pierce. Following this, she traveled to Europe for what she intended to be a period of rest. Ultimately though, she involved herself in advocating for the mentall ill population there as well. Similarly to what she had done in the United States, she began to travel around, visiting various hospitals and prisons in England, Scotland, France, Austria, Italy, Greece, Turkey, Sweden, Denmark, Holland, Belgium, and Germany, and speaking with their respective authorities with the goal of enacting change (Viney & Zorich 1982).
Arriving back in the United States in 1856, the course of Dix’s life was changed by the events of the Civil War. Dix went on to spend the final years of her public service as the Superintendent of Union Army Nurses during the war. This position was the highest military position held by any woman during this era. Dix was a very strict administrator and had rigid guidelines when it came to hiring nurses, which many individuals disapproved of. For example, she only hired nurses between the ages of thirty five and fifty because she believed that anyone younger would be distracting to the male soldiers. Her rules faced much criticism, and this would be the beginning of the end of her career. Dix herself even went so far as to say that her time as the Superintendent of nurses during the war was a failure, and that she did not want her life to be judged on that work alone (Galik 2017).
Dix’s life came full circle when she passed away in 1887, after a six year stay in the state hospital in Trenton, New Jersey. This facility happened to be the first hospital that was founded entirely as a result of her own efforts.
Sources:
"Dorothea Lynde Dix." In Encyclopedia of World Biography Online. Detroit, MI: Gale, 1998. Gale In Context: Biography (accessed June 15, 2021).
https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/K1631001831/BIC?u=mlin_b_suffuniv&sid=bookmark-BIC&xid=4 291e8d7.
Galik, Emily. “Dorothea Dix, Superintendent of Nurses: When an Activist Becomes an Administrator” Women Leading Change: Case Studies on Women, Gender, and Feminism 2, no. 1 (December 2017) 31-44.
Norbury, Frank B. “Dorothea Dix and the Founding of Illinois’ First Mental Hospital” Journal of the Illinois State Historical Society (1998-) 92, no. 1 (Spring 1999) 13-29.
Smark, Ciorstan J. “Dorothea Dix: A Social Researcher and Reformer” University of Wollongong (January 2005) 1-10.
Viney, Wayne and Zorich, Steven. “Contributions to the History of Psychology: XXIX Dorothea Dix and the History of Psychology” Psychological Reports 50 (1982) 211-218.
Deutsch, Abert. “Dorothea Lynde Dix: Apostle of the Insane” The American Journal of Nursing 36, no. 10 (October 1936) 987-997
Gollaher, David L. “Dorothea Dix and the English Origins of the American Asylum Movement” Canadian Review of American Studies 23, no. 3 (Spring 1993) 149-175
Michel, Sonya. “Dorothea Dix; or, the Voice of the Maniac” Discourse 17, no. 2 (Winter 1994-1995) 48-66
After studying to become a doctor, Sawyer migrated to Miami in 1908 and opened a small practice in “Colored town,” today known as Overtown. Not only did he serve his community as a medical professional, but he was also quickly to become an influential philanthropist and activist. He encouraged the black community to invest in order to gain new levels of economic freedom, and to participate in community events and sponsorships. Moreover, Sawyer was an active participant in the “Colored Board of Trade,” where influential black entrepreneurs and leaders would represent their section of Miami-Dade county. Dr. Sawyer used this as an avenue to better the quality of life for his historically under-served and under-represented community members.
To understand the nature of neglect that the black community of Miami faced, it is necessary to trace the community’s historical trajectory. In the early 20th century, many immigrants from the Bahamas came to the city in search of new economic opportunities. Many of these immigrants however, were only able to find back-breaking work on the new railroad system being developed there by Henry M. Flagler. In southern Florida, black individuals were frequently dehumanized, and imagined simply as tools to use for the development of the city. Despite the importance of their work, the minority status of these immigrants left them vulnerable to rampant abuse and exploitation. They were often overworked and not given a voice within Miami-Dade County. Dr. William B. Sawyer was able to petition for representation of this minority group because of the platform he had taken on as an influential civil rights activist within the segregated northwest section of Miami, Florida. For reference, this was the Jim Crow Era in the United States, an era of strict segregation and racial terrorism. Lynching was a scare tactic frequently used by white citizens, and black Americans were continually denied the right to share their grievances. Dr. Sawyer often attempted to remedy this by speaking up for the African Americans of Overtown in meetings with predominantly white legislators.
Moreover, African Americans in this period were far more vulnerable to the effects of Florida’s natural disasters than were their white counterparts. Hurricanes brought destruction to black individuals' houses and black families. The most notable occurrence was the “Great Miami Hurricane of 1926.” White men from more elite neighborhoods like Coral Gables and Pinecrest intentionally rounded up black men in Northern Miami to repair damages in their neighborhoods. Black Miamians needed an advocate and Sawyer was the community member that many of them looked to. Dr. Sawyer had always been a medical professional that kept up to date on medical practices and offered exceptional care to his community. Despite the lack of resources available to black Americans at this time, and the fact that Sawyer’s medical practice kept him extremely occupied, he nevertheless found ways to uplift his community.
With the help of donors, Dr. Sawyer, Dana Dorsey, and Dr. S.M Fraizer raised funds to establish the first hospital in Overtown. In 1920, The Christian Hospital opened its doors. Dr. Sawyer headed the board of this institution. The Christian Hospital was revolutionary in southern Florida because of its accessibility to black individuals. Medical treatment was provided for the community immediately. Prior to the opening, major surgeries were performed out of state. However, this opened a door to allow working individuals the opportunity to receive care in their own neighborhood. The opening was revolutionary in its capacity to give to the black community a basic right: access to health care. Dr. Sawyer made other efforts to bolster the health of the black community as well. One example is when he worked closely with The University of Miami Medical School in hopes of opening a medical school for Black Miamians. Despite the fact that this specific project was unsuccessful, Dr. Sawyer nevertheless inspired many in his community to pursue degrees in medicine.
Another project that Sawyer implemented to uplift the community was the founding of The Mary Elizabeth Hotel in 1921. Standing three stories tall, the Mary Elizabeth Hotel was the largest building in Overtown. Upon its opening, The Miami Times noted this achievement. It was a hotel that contributed to the social and cultural scene of Overtown. W.E.B Dubois stayed there while visiting, demonstrating that it was a space for Black intellectuals, artists, and so on, to gather and collaborate. As hostelries throughout southern Florida did not provide lodging for minority groups, The Mary Elizabeth Hotel was revolutionary in its capacity to invite minority groups to enjoy southern Florida. Dr. Sawyer contributed to the liveliness of his city and encouraged other African Americans to visit the Magic City. In a similar vein, In order for Dr. Sawyer to build and empower the black community it was imperative that he fund it, he invested money into Overtown starting up a $500,000 housing project to create more houses while developing their structure and security.
Concurrently, Dr. Sawyer engaged in important political movements in Miami-Dade County. In 1932, black Miamians were unable to vote in elections. The National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) noted Dr. Sawyer as a civic leader and reached out for his opinion on the matter. Sawyer spoke about the struggle of African Americans to gain adequate citizenship rights, and their various attempts to participate in politics.
In the 21st century, the various contributions that Sawyer made to Miami are still visible. Sawyer was, in large part, a voice for creating Jackson Memorial Hospital in North Miami. Ultimately, Sawyer was a public servant, deeply embedded in, and dedicated to, his community. Speaking for the political interests of minority people groups by collaborating with fellow influential black Miamians, raising funds for projects like the Christian Hospital, and most importantly lending hope to a community that was continually abused after a long legacy of slavery.
Sources:
Fleischmann, Thomas F. "Black Miamians in The Miami Metropolis, 1896-1900." Tequesta 52 (1992): 21-38.
Dunn, Marvin. 1997. Black Miami in the twentieth century. Gainesville: University Press of Florida. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&scope=site&db=nlebk&db=nlabk&AN=54975.
Connolly, N. D. B. 2014. A world more concrete. Chicago, Ill: Univ. of Chicago Press.
Waters, Roderick. "Dr. William B. Sawyer of Colored Town." Tequesta 57 (1997): 67-80.
Mohl, Raymond A. "Black Immigrants: Bahamians in Early Twentieth-Century Miami." The Florida Historical Quarterly 65, no. 3 (1987): 271-97. Accessed June 3, 2021. http://www.jstor.org/stable/30147810.
Shell-Weiss, Melanie. "Coming North to the South: Migration, Labor and City-Building in Twentieth-Century Miami." The Florida Historical Quarterly 84, no. 1 (2005): 79-99. Accessed June 3, 2021. http://www.jstor.org/stable/30150917.
Wikimedia Commons contributors, "File:Miami Overtown FL Mt Zion Baptist sign01.jpg," Wikimedia Commons, the free media repository, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Miami_Overtown_FL_Mt_Zion_Baptist_sign01.jpg&oldid=464220887 (accessed June 3, 2021).
Pessar, Phillip. Welcome to Historic Overtown. Photograph. Flickr. Miami, 2013. https://www.flickr.com/photos/southbeachcars/9108300685.
]]>
Dr. William B. Sawyer (1886-1950), the first black medical professional in southern Florida, has been recognized as an important figure in the early 20th century development of Miami’s African American community. Born in northern Florida, Sawyer pursued a B.A. at Atlanta University. While there, Sawyer became an understudy of W.E.B Dubois, who was a professor of history, sociology, and economics. Dubois encouraged Dr. Sawyer to continue his education beyond his bachelor’s degree, which served as the catalyst for Sawyer’s entry into a M.D. program in Tennessee.
After studying to become a doctor, Sawyer migrated to Miami in 1908 and opened a small practice in “Colored town,” today known as Overtown. Not only did he serve his community as a medical professional, but he was also quickly to become an influential philanthropist and activist. He encouraged the black community to invest in order to gain new levels of economic freedom, and to participate in community events and sponsorships. Moreover, Sawyer was an active participant in the “Colored Board of Trade,” where influential black entrepreneurs and leaders would represent their section of Miami-Dade county. Dr. Sawyer used this as an avenue to better the quality of life for his historically under-served and under-represented community members.
To understand the nature of neglect that the black community of Miami faced, it is necessary to trace the community’s historical trajectory. In the early 20th century, many immigrants from the Bahamas came to the city in search of new economic opportunities. Many of these immigrants however, were only able to find back-breaking work on the new railroad system being developed there by Henry M. Flagler. In southern Florida, black individuals were frequently dehumanized, and imagined simply as tools to use for the development of the city. Despite the importance of their work, the minority status of these immigrants left them vulnerable to rampant abuse and exploitation. They were often overworked and not given a voice within Miami-Dade County. Dr. William B. Sawyer was able to petition for representation of this minority group because of the platform he had taken on as an influential civil rights activist within the segregated northwest section of Miami, Florida. For reference, this was the Jim Crow Era in the United States, an era of strict segregation and racial terrorism. Lynching was a scare tactic frequently used by white citizens, and black Americans were continually denied the right to share their grievances. Dr. Sawyer often attempted to remedy this by speaking up for the African Americans of Overtown in meetings with predominantly white legislators.
Moreover, African Americans in this period were far more vulnerable to the effects of Florida’s natural disasters than were their white counterparts. Hurricanes brought destruction to black individuals' houses and black families. The most notable occurrence was the “Great Miami Hurricane of 1926.” White men from more elite neighborhoods like Coral Gables and Pinecrest intentionally rounded up black men in Northern Miami to repair damages in their neighborhoods. Black Miamians needed an advocate and Sawyer was the community member that many of them looked to. Dr. Sawyer had always been a medical professional that kept up to date on medical practices and offered exceptional care to his community. Despite the lack of resources available to black Americans at this time, and the fact that Sawyer’s medical practice kept him extremely occupied, he nevertheless found ways to uplift his community.
With the help of donors, Dr. Sawyer, Dana Dorsey, and Dr. S.M Fraizer raised funds to establish the first hospital in Overtown. In 1920, The Christian Hospital opened its doors. Dr. Sawyer headed the board of this institution. The Christian Hospital was revolutionary in southern Florida because of its accessibility to black individuals. Medical treatment was provided for the community immediately. Prior to the opening, major surgeries were performed out of state. However, this opened a door to allow working individuals the opportunity to receive care in their own neighborhood. The opening was revolutionary in its capacity to give to the black community a basic right: access to health care. Dr. Sawyer made other efforts to bolster the health of the black community as well. One example is when he worked closely with The University of Miami Medical School in hopes of opening a medical school for Black Miamians. Despite the fact that this specific project was unsuccessful, Dr. Sawyer nevertheless inspired many in his community to pursue degrees in medicine.
Another project that Sawyer implemented to uplift the community was the founding of The Mary Elizabeth Hotel in 1921. Standing three stories tall, the Mary Elizabeth Hotel was the largest building in Overtown. Upon its opening, The Miami Times noted this achievement. It was a hotel that contributed to the social and cultural scene of Overtown. W.E.B Dubois stayed there while visiting, demonstrating that it was a space for Black intellectuals, artists, and so on, to gather and collaborate. As hostelries throughout southern Florida did not provide lodging for minority groups, The Mary Elizabeth Hotel was revolutionary in its capacity to invite minority groups to enjoy southern Florida. Dr. Sawyer contributed to the liveliness of his city and encouraged other African Americans to visit the Magic City. In a similar vein, In order for Dr. Sawyer to build and empower the black community it was imperative that he fund it, he invested money into Overtown starting up a $500,000 housing project to create more houses while developing their structure and security.
Concurrently, Dr. Sawyer engaged in important political movements in Miami-Dade County. In 1932, black Miamians were unable to vote in elections. The National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) noted Dr. Sawyer as a civic leader and reached out for his opinion on the matter. Sawyer spoke about the struggle of African Americans to gain adequate citizenship rights, and their various attempts to participate in politics.
In the 21st century, the various contributions that Sawyer made to Miami are still visible. Sawyer was, in large part, a voice for creating Jackson Memorial Hospital in North Miami. Ultimately, Sawyer was a public servant, deeply embedded in, and dedicated to, his community. Speaking for the political interests of minority people groups by collaborating with fellow influential black Miamians, raising funds for projects like the Christian Hospital, and most importantly lending hope to a community that was continually abused after a long legacy of slavery.
Sources:
Fleischmann, Thomas F. "Black Miamians in The Miami Metropolis, 1896-1900." Tequesta 52 (1992): 21-38.
Dunn, Marvin. 1997. Black Miami in the twentieth century. Gainesville: University Press of Florida. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&scope=site&db=nlebk&db=nlabk&AN=54975.
Connolly, N. D. B. 2014. A world more concrete. Chicago, Ill: Univ. of Chicago Press.
Waters, Roderick. "Dr. William B. Sawyer of Colored Town." Tequesta 57 (1997): 67-80.
Mohl, Raymond A. "Black Immigrants: Bahamians in Early Twentieth-Century Miami." The Florida Historical Quarterly 65, no. 3 (1987): 271-97. Accessed June 3, 2021. http://www.jstor.org/stable/30147810.
Shell-Weiss, Melanie. "Coming North to the South: Migration, Labor and City-Building in Twentieth-Century Miami." The Florida Historical Quarterly 84, no. 1 (2005): 79-99. Accessed June 3, 2021. http://www.jstor.org/stable/30150917.
Wikimedia Commons contributors, "File:Miami Overtown FL Mt Zion Baptist sign01.jpg," Wikimedia Commons, the free media repository, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Miami_Overtown_FL_Mt_Zion_Baptist_sign01.jpg&oldid=464220887 (accessed June 3, 2021).
Pessar, Phillip. Welcome to Historic Overtown. Photograph. Flickr. Miami, 2013. https://www.flickr.com/photos/southbeachcars/9108300685.
Connolly, N. D. B. "Colored, Caribbean, and Condemned: Miami's Overtown District and the Cultural Expense of Progress, 1940-1970." Caribbean Studies 34, no. 1 (2006): 3-60. Accessed June 3, 2021. http://www.jstor.org/stable/25613509.
Waters, Roderick Dion. "Sister Sawyer: the life and times of Gwendolyn Sawyer Cherry." PhD diss., The Florida State University, 1994.
Smith-Cavros, Eileen, and Emily Eisenhauer. "Overtown: neighbourhood, change, challenge and “invironment”." Local environment 19, no. 4 (2014): 384-401.
Barnes, Germane. "Black Miami's Resiliency: A Photographic Essay." Anthurium A Caribbean Studies Journal 16, no. 1 (2020).